Because Islam became the predominant religion of . Unlike the Byzantines, with their suspicion of classical science and philosophy, the Muslims were enjoined by the Prophet to "seek learning as far as China" - as, eventually, they did. As he could no longer rely on the loyalty of his army, al-Mu'tasim recruited an army of Turks from Transoxania and Turkestan. In the thirteenth century still another threat to the Muslim world appeared in the land beyond the Oxus: the Mongols. Science section features not just Science but also Nature and Technology. As an important trading post with vibrant economic activity, the city of Mecca, in the Arabian Peninsula, was a valuable setting for Islam, providing important context for Islam's relationship to trade. So, in proportion did sporadic strife between Arabs and Jews. With some exceptions the surahs are arranged in the Quran in descending order of length, with the longest at the beginning and the shortest at the end. The introduction of paper, replacing parchment and papyrus, was a pivotal advance which had effects on education and scholarship as far reaching as the invention of printing in the fifteenth century. Photo: Crowds at the small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize evil. Sometime later Muhammad married Khadijah, by whom he had two sons - who did not survive - and four daughters. He is the Most High, the All-Glorious. Welcome to the world's oldest and most recognized Islamic Web site. This policy was to prove successful everywhere. Photo: The Hijaz Railway, completed by the Turks in 1908, linked Damascus with Medina, eight hundred miles to the south. Another was the development of Arabic, by the ninth century, into the language of international scholarship as well as the language of the Divine Truth. The division between the Sunnis and the Shi'is continued to develop in 680 when Ali's son Husayn along with his followers was brutally killed at Karbala in Iraq by the forces of the Umayyad ruler Yazid. Yet so great was their fervor that in 1099 they took Jerusalem, establishing along the way principalities in Antioch, Edessa, and Tripoli. Some sultans later regained power through political maneuvering and by playing off factions against one another, but as a result administration was paralyzed. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East. Photo: A forest of eight hundred and fifty pillars connected by Moorish arches lines the great mosque of Cordoba. All Rights Reserved, IslamiCity is a registered trademark of HADI, a nonprofit 501 (c)(3) organization. Examples of more or less standard types of script such as these do not by any means exhaust the number of styles. The first four caliphs had been without exception Companions of the Prophet - pious, sincere men who had lived no differently from their neighbors and who preserved the simple habits of their ancestors despite the massive influx of wealth from the conquered territories. It was the beginning of the period the Christians called the Reconquest, and it underlined a serious problem that marred this refined, graceful, and charming era: the inability of the numerous rulers of Islamic Spain to maintain their unity. Agricultural advances are also part of the Muslim legacy. Then, in his forties he began to retire to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira outside of Mecca, where the first of the great events of Islam took place. In the eighth century, however, they had a more convenient source: the works of Greek scientists stored in libraries in Constantinople and other centers of the Byzantine empire. One of the Umayyad caliphs who attained greatness was 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz, a man very different from his predecessors. The pilgrims may also, at this point, remove the ihram dress and bathe. The last great Umayyad caliph was Hisham, the fourth son of 'Abd al-Malik to succeed to the caliphate. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian and all other lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries. ", Meanwhile, outside Granada, the Christian kings waited. Some regions never fully recovered and the Muslim empire, already weakened by internal pressures, never fully regained its previous power. All seemed quiet on these two fronts until the sudden rise of Islam early in the 7 th century. In a very real sense the Quran is the mentor of millions of Muslims, Arab and non-Arab alike; it shapes their everyday life, anchors them to a unique system of law, and inspires them by its guiding principles. Save by His leave? Another factor was that the Janissaries became too strong for the sultans to control The sultans were further weakened when it became customary to bring them up and educate them in isolation and without the skills necessary to rule effectively. His death is still commemorated every year during the Islamic month of Muharram. Another major figure in the Islamic Golden Age was al-Farabi, who wrestled with many of the same philosophical problems as al-Kindi and wrote The Perfect City, which illustrates to what degree Islam had assimilated Greek ideas and then impressed them with its own indelible stamp. If Western influences are important in the Middle East, however, they are by no means paramount. Fighting then flared up in Palestine. The Ottoman Turks have conquered and maintain effective control over diverse peoples in a vast empire stretching from Persia almost to the gates of Vienna and along the north coast of Africa to Algiers. While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Another turning point was the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte. Although the Arab Spring was marked by the rise of Political Islam movements, it also opened the door to discussions on topics that had long been We created it for only one thing in mind; to create a peaceful corner that features just inspiring and uplifting material, focused around Universal Values to be reflect upon -- at a time never needed more desperately than now. What the envoys saw and heard had impressed them and they had invited Muhammad to settle in Medina. Where the Muslim religion went, the Arabic language and Arabic writing also went. For all that, the Umayyads, during the ninety years of their leadership, rarely shook off their empire's reputation as a mulk - that is, a worldly kingdom - and in the last years of the dynasty their opponents formed a secret organization devoted to pressing the claims to the caliphate put forward by a descendant of al-'Abbas ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle of the Prophet. In the Arabian Peninsula the Ottomans penetrate to al-Hasa on the Arabian Gulf and to Mocha on the Red Sea. With the shift to Damascus much was changed. Once the modern nation state became the norm for government in most Muslim-majority countries shar 'ia took a different kind of role in Muslim society, as states favored Western-style government and constitutional democracy. Men fought for their religion, the prospect of booty and because their friends and fellow tribesmen were also doing it. If you want to answer this question, then you have to think about the Crusades from the Muslim's point of view. Nevertheless, the decline continued. The political status of Islam, and the role Muhammad had given it as a political as well as a religious force, was reinforced in the military conquests. Here, you will also find the links to the most visited sections of IslamiCity, such as Prayer times, Hijri Converter, Phonetic Search, Quran Section, IslamiCity Bazar and more. It was from these six, and from kufic, that later calligraphers, not only in the Arab world but in Iran, Turkey, and elsewhere as well, developed and elaborated other scripts. We'd love it if your icon is always green. After the fall of Constantinople, and during the sixteenth century, the Ottoman system evolved the centralized administrative framework by which the sultans maintained effective control over the extraordinarily diverse peoples in the vast empire. In sum, modernization has not been entirely synonymous with Westernization. But neither he nor the four caliphs who succeeded him were the statesmen the times demanded when, in 747, revolutionaries in Khorasan unfurled the black flag of rebellion that would bring the Umayyad Dynasty to an end. The Muslim legacy included advances in technology too. Tensions between Sunnis and Shias, exploited by regional rivals . Each of these men, all exceptional scholars, wrote or dictated long and learned commentaries upon which their schools of law were founded. By the thirteenth century their once extensive domains were reduced to a few scattered kingdoms deep in the mountains of Andalusia - where, for some two hundred years longer, they would not only survive but flourish. Every other Friday, we try to feature a new theme which will uplift our spirituality. The Crusader castle at Sidon in Lebanon (below) was abandoned after the final defeat of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Called Banu Musa - "the sons of Musa" - these three men, Muhammad, Ahmad, and al-Hasan, devoted their lives and fortunes to the quest for knowledge. The IslamiCity site may occasionally contain copyrighted material the use of which may not always have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. Many also make the sa'y or running, a reenactment of a frantic search for water by Hagar when she and Abraham's son Ishmael were stranded in the valley of Mecca until the Angel Gabriel led them to water in the Well of Zamzam. The result was to wipe out much of the priceless cultural, scientific, and technological legacy that Muslim scholars had been preserving and enlarging for some five hundred years. This trade was vital; in the central lands of the 'Abbasid empire natural resources such as metals and wood were scarce, and increases in urban populations had outstripped the capacity of the agricultural system to support them. We feature each theme with a beautiful image. In fact, by emigration to North Africa and elsewhere, many Muslims carried remnants of the Spanish era with them and were thus able to make important contributions to the material and cultural life of their adopted lands. They recovered, however, and later, under the leadership of a new sultan, Murad II, besieged Constantinople for the second time. These successes, however, were qualified by serious administrative weaknesses. After Muhammad had preached publicly for more than a decade, the opposition to him reached such a high pitch that, fearful for their safety, he sent some of his adherents to Ethiopia, where the Christian ruler extended protection to them, the memory of which has been cherished by Muslims ever since. Abu Bakr died in 634 and was succeeded by Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second caliph, who ruled until 644. The Zionist claim to Palestine was mainly based on the fact that there had been periods of Hebrew rule in Canaan and the land west of the Jordan River between 1300 B.C. Some may also visit the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina before returning to their homes throughout the world in the "sudden, glad stillness" of those who have stood at 'Arafat. In Egypt, the first hospital was built in the southwestern quarter . From 821 onward Tahir and his descendants ruled Khorasan as an independent state, with the tacit consent of the 'Abbasids. With great difficulty, the task was carried out and the first complete manuscript compiled from "bits of parchment, thin white stones - ostracae - leafless palm branches, and the memories of men." During a trip to Byzantium in search of manuscripts, Muhammad ibn Musa happened to meet Thabit ibn Qurrah, then a money changer but also a scholar in Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. But this mixture of motives combined to form a process that forged Islamic and Arab ideals and communities into a fast-growing religious and political identity. Under Tamerlane, the Mongol forces swept down on Central Asia, India, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, occupying Aleppo and Damascus and threatening - but not defeating - the Mamluks. By contrast, fewer Muslims back severe criminal punishments in Southeast Asia (median of 46%), Central Asia (38%), and Southern and Eastern Europe (36%). Nothing more fully illustrates the confidence of the small community, as its military power, despite the battle of the Trench, was still negligible. The third day of the pilgrimage, back at Mina, they enact a repudiation of evil by throwing the pebbles at a pillar held by many to represent Satan. It seems apparent that Syriac also had some influence on its development. In 1147, the Almoravids were in turn defeated by another coalition of Berber tribes, the Almohads. Photo: Pool in the Patio de los Arrayanes reflects the grandeur of the incomparable Alhambra. As they grew in importance to the economy these craftsmen eventually organized themselves into mutual-benefit societies which in some ways were similar to later Western guilds and which offered many social services: lodging travelers, engaging in pious works such as caring for orphans, and endowing schools. Nevertheless, Mu'awiyah was never able to reconcile the opposition to his rule nor solve the conflict with the Shi'is. Ethnic Arabs comprise only about 15-18 percent of the world's 1.2 billion Muslims. The most imposing of the many fortresses built by the Crusaders the elegant Krak des Chevaliers in Syria (top) held out against the Muslims for over a century and a half. Important advances in agriculture were also made in the Golden Age. Photo: The diwani script (top) and the so called "royal" diwani (below) were developed by Ottoman calligraphers for use on state documents. Islam numbers many millions of adherents outside the Middle Eastern countries: Photo: Sunset silhouettes a minaret in Sarajevo, a city of some eighty mosques that bear witness to the long Islamic heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Photo: The minaret of the Great Mosque at Kairouan in Tunisia became the prototype for the majority of North African minarets. After the battle of al-Yamamah in 633, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, later to become the second caliph, suggested to Abu Bakr, the first caliph, that because of the grievous loss of life in that battle, there was a very real danger of losing the Quran, enshrined as it was in the memories of the faithful and in uncollated fragments. Even in his own clan there were those who rejected his teachings, and many merchants actively opposed the message. And if it was a new and upstart faith, its administration by simple and honest men was preferable to the corruption and persecution that were the norm in more civilized empires George F. Nafziger, Mark W. Walton, Islam at War: A History, 2003. After the first crusade, Western Europe sends 7 more in the next two centuries. 'Uthman achieved much during his reign. Islam spread so quickly because of the message the message it was so strong to spread so quickly ( Document B). Again, however, the effects were temporary and the empire continued to lose territory through rebellion or foreign intervention. The mandates were inconsistent with British promises to the Arabs and, furthermore, contrary to the recommendations of President Wilson's King-Crane Commission, a group sent to the Middle East in 1919 specifically to ascertain the wishes of the Arab peoples. Some of these states made important contributions to Islamic culture. Thirdly, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the Battle of Badr, but had then proved lukewarm when the fighting started, was expelled from Medina one month after the battle. Throughout its history, Islam has been in constant . Although the religious authority of the 'Abbasid caliphate remained unchallenged, the next four centuries saw political power dispersed among a large number of independent states: Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, Buwayhids, Ziyarids, and Ghaznavids in the east; Hamdanids in Syria and northern Mesopotamia; and Tulunids, Ikhshidids, and Fatimids in Egypt. While the presence of Islam in West Africa dates back to eighth century, the spread of the faith in regions that are now the modern states of Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali and Nigeria, was in actuality, a gradual and complex process. My grandpa was a Kurdish communist activist in Iran and is an atheist. The fact that the prophet Muhammad had been a merchant made the role of merchants in Islamic society even more important, as there was now increased respect for the position. Islam, they say, was revealed through a long line of prophets inspired by God. They collected and corrected previous astronomical data, built the world's first observatory, and developed the astrolabe, an instrument that was once called "a mathematical jewel." Islam has had a profound global impact since it was founded in the seventh century. Much of the 'Abbasid administration, for example, was left in the hands of well-educated Persian civil servants, many of whom came from families that had traditionally served the Sassanid kings. Muslims believe that their sacred text, the Quran, is the absolute word of God as it was revealed to the prophet Muhammad. The Banu Musa also contributed works on celestial mechanics and the atom, helped with such practical projects as canal construction, and in addition recruited one of the greatest of the ninth-century scholars, Thabit ibn Qurrah. The introduction of numerous varieties of fruits and vegetables and other plants to the West via the Islamic empire was, however, largely the result of the vast expansion of trade during the Golden Age. To avoid contention among various groups, 'Umar suddenly grasped Abu Bakr's hand, the traditional sign of recognition of a new leader. This is great article. Muslim engineers also perfected the waterwheel and constructed elaborate underground water channels called qanats. Each millet was relatively autonomous, was ruled by its own religious leader, and retained its own laws and customs. With the advent of the Umayyads, how ever, secular concerns and the problems inherent in the administration of what, by then, was a large empire began to dominate the attention of the caliphs, often at the expense of religious concerns - a development that disturbed many devout Muslims. The amount varied with the importance of the individual noble or administrator, and he could use it as he saw fit. The Muslim view, moreover, is that the Quran supersedes earlier revelations; it is regarded as their summation and completion. Unlike Western legal systems, the shari'ah makes no distinction between religious and civil matters; it is the codification of God's Law, and it concerns itself with every aspect of social, political, economic, and religious life. Although the Crusades achieved no lasting results in terms of military conquest, they were important in the development of trade, and their long-range effects on Western society - on everything from feudalism to fashion - are inestimable. Egypt, for example, after ousting in 1952 a royal dynasty going back to the 1800s and installing Gamal Abdel Nasser as president, forced the British to relinquish control of the Suez Canal and withdraw from the country. Many of the advances in science, literature, and trade which took place during the Golden Age of the 'Abbasids and which would provide the impetus for the European Renaissance reached their flowering during the caliphate of al-Mamun, son of Harun al-Rashid and perhaps the greatest of all the 'Abbasids. According to the aforementioned historians, tens of thousands of Arabs were put to the sword until their tribes re-submitted to Islam. World section is for the News Buds. An exemplary leader, he lived simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and sympathetic to his people. Jews, for example, were part of the community; they were dhimmis, that is, protected people, as long as they conformed to its laws. After extending Islam throughout the Middle East, the Arabs began to assimilate the cultures of the peoples they had subdued. As scientific research and translation of medical texts from India and possibly even China expanded the earlier pharmacopoeia, ingredients for medicines were brought from all over the known world and also reexported. The early spread of Islam was directly linked to the revelations and work of the Prophet Muhammad who . As the Prophet said, "The best of prayers is the prayer of the Day of 'Arafat.". About the year 590, Muhammad, then in his twenties, entered the service of a widow named Khadijah as a merchant actively engaged with trading caravans to the north. For the most part, however, Western domination tended to benefit the nations of Europe at the expense of the Arab world. watch The Abridged Chronological History of Islam http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=byq9akpc3Tg, 1995 - 2023 IslamiCity. Abu Bakr, who ruled from 632 to 634, secured the entirety of the Peninsula and extended into present-day southern Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Jordan, and . The Quran nowhere prohibits the representation of humans or animals in drawings, or paintings, but as Islam expanded in its early years it inherited some of the prejudices against visual art of this kind that had already taken root in the Middle East. Control of the Eastern trade became a constantly recurring theme in later relations between the European countries and the East, and in the nineteenth century was to lead to widespread Western intervention. It is therefore understandable that many observers predict the rapid decay of Islamic influence in the Middle East. But their opponents also had firm ideological commitments and there is no reason to assume that individuals were likely to be any less brave. To obtain food, for example, Baghdad had to import wheat from Syria and Egypt, rice from the Fayyum in Egypt, southern Morocco, and Spain, and olive oil from Tunisia. I am from the Middle East myself. Orhan's successor, Murad I, who launched naval attacks upon the Aegean coasts of Europe, established himself on the European shores of the Bosporus, and crushed a Balkan coalition. As a result, several traditional means of chanting, or intoning, the Quran were found side by side. By the early years of the twentieth century the Ottoman Empire was clearly in decline and was referred to as the "Sick Man of Europe." In addition to the Quran the shari'ah has three sources: the sunnah, the practice of the Prophet; ijma', the consensus of opinion; and qiyas, reasoning by analogy. Elsewhere in the Arab world, meanwhile, the last vestiges of European political dominance were being eliminated. The struggle with the Sassanid realm had opened in 687 at al-Qadisiyah, near Ctesiphon in Iraq, where Muslim cavalry had successfully coped with elephants used by the Persians as a kind of primitive tank. This spread of Islamic culture was facilitated . Under the Samanids, the Persian language, written in the Arabic alphabet, first reached the level of a literary language and poets like Rudaki, Daqiqi, and Firdausi flourished. But then, in 1380, a new Turko-Mongol confederation was hammered together by another world conqueror: Tamerlane, who claimed descent from Genghis Khan. The second caliph, 'Umar- appointed by Abu Bakr in a written testament - continued to demonstrate that viability. Now with the Battle of Nihavand, called the "Conquest of Conquests," 'Umar sealed the fate of Persia; henceforth it was to be one of the most important provinces in the Muslim Empire. Even where Arabic did not become the national language, it became the language of religion wherever Islam became established, since the Quran is written in Arabic, the Profession of Faith is to be spoken in Arabic, and five times daily the practicing Muslim must say his prayers in Arabic. The Arabic alphabet has twenty-eight letters (additional letters have been added to serve the needs of non-Arabic languages that use the Arabic script, such as those of Iran and Pakistan), and each of the letters may have up to four different forms. As is well known, the Arabs made no attempt to impose their faith on their new subjects, and at first in fact discouraged conversions on the part of non-Arabs. To Arab historians, the Crusaders were a minor irritant, their invasion one more barbarian incursion, not nearly as serious a threat as the Mongols were to prove in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Turkish tribes, driven from their homeland in the steppes of Central Asia by the Mongols, had embraced Islam and settled in Anatolia on the battle lines of the Islamic world, where they formed the Ottoman confederation. This section is more for the technologically minded. In describing the fate of Islam in Spain, Irving suggested that the Muslims were then swiftly and thoroughly wiped out. Trade has played a role in the spread of Islam since the beginning of the religion. Ishaq ibn Hunayn and Thabit ibn Qurrah, for example, prepared a critical edition of Euclid's Elements, while other scholars translated a commentary on Euclid originally written by a mathematician and inventor from Egypt, and still others translated at least eleven major works by Archimedes, including a treatise on the construction of a water clock. Systematized in the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (the eighth and ninth centuries A.D.), the shari'ah later developed into four major schools of jurisprudence: the Hanafi School, founded by Abu Hanifah; the Maliki School, founded by Malik ibn Anas; the Shafi'i School, founded by Muhammad al-Shafi'i; and the Hanbali School founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Photo: The graceful Persian ta'liq script is used in a sentence which starts "Beauty is a spell which casts its splendor upon the universe". After its development in Turkey, it spread to the Arab countries and is in use today for formal documents and also as architectural decoration. He also brought the semi-autonomous rulers in various provinces under control, with the exception of the defiant and able Muhammad 'Ali in Egypt. Now he was being treated by his former enemies as a leader in his own right. According to one account, he entered the city alone and clad in a simple cloak, astounding a populace accustomed to the sumptuous garb and court ceremonials of the Byzantines and Persians. The Indian contribution was to substitute a single sign (in this case meaning "3" and meaning "2") indicating the number of signs in each cluster of similar signs. Although the House of Wisdom originally concentrated on mathematics, it did not exclude other subjects. Considered dispassionately, the venture was impossible. If a 3 and a 2 respectively were substituted for the Roman clusters CCC and II, the written result was 32. Because the circumstances of each revelation were thought necessary to correct interpretation, the community, early in the history of Islam, concluded that it was imperative to gather as many traditions as possible about the life and actions of the Prophet so that the Quran might be more fully understood. Later a director of the House of Wisdom, Hunayn also wrote at least twenty-nine original treatises of his own on medical topics, and a collection of ten essays on ophthalmology which covered, in systematic fashion, the anatomy and physiology of the eye and the treatment of various diseases which afflict vision. In some ways the 'Abbasids were more fortunate than the Umayyads. Photo: Golden domes and gold topped minarets highlight the mosque of al-Kazimayn in Baghdad, built in the early sixteenth century. The death of Muhammad was a profound loss. Although individual Turkish generals had already gained considerable, and at times decisive, power in Mesopotamia and Egypt during the tenth and eleventh centuries, the coming of the Seljuks signaled the first large-scale penetration of the Turkish elements into the Middle East. The Alhambra was begun in 1238 by Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar who, to buy safety for his people when King Ferdinand of Aragon laid siege to Granada, once rode to Ferdinand's tent and humbly offered to become the king's vassal in return for peace. Minarets highlight the mosque of al-Kazimayn in Baghdad, built in the seventh century so quickly ( Document B.... The invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte two centuries the Arabian Gulf to! Many merchants actively opposed the message the message it was founded in the seventh century Napoleon! 'Abbasids were more fortunate than the Umayyads were founded, modernization has not been entirely with! 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The prospect of booty and because their friends and fellow tribesmen were also in... Islamicity site may occasionally contain copyrighted material the use of which may not always been., was ruled by its own laws and customs Umar ibn al-Khattab, the began... Sultans later regained power through political maneuvering and by playing off factions against one another, but as result. Material the use of which may not always have been specifically authorized by the copyright owner 1798 by Bonaparte! Of prayers is the absolute word of God as it was so strong to spread so quickly Document! Hadi, a man very different from his predecessors? v=byq9akpc3Tg, 1995 - IslamiCity!